Previous years Question Paper Subject Code: BHM116 Subject Nutrition

QUESTION BANK 

(Each question carries 10 marks)

1. What is BMR and explain the factors affecting it.

2. Define Energy. Discuss the various factors affecting energy requirements.

3. What are Carbohydrates? What functions do they perform in our body?

4. Define Dietary Carbohydrates. Classify them with the help of a chart. What are monosaccharides?

5. Discuss the importance of food in maintaining good health.

6. Classify nutrients and explain them briefly.

(Each question carries 5 marks)

1. Name the conditions that lead to obesity.

2. What are the health risk associated with Obesity?

3. Name the conditions that lead to under weight.

(1 Markers)

4. Match the columns

a. Kcal i)  9 Kcal/gram

b. Protein requirement ii) 4.2 Kilojoules

c. Fat         iii) 0.8 gram per kg of body weight

d. 1 Kcal iv) Liver

e. Glycogen v) Energy unit

f. Proteins         vi. hypervitaminosis

g. Vitamins         vii. energy

h. Minerals         viii. Protective function

i. Excessive vitamin intake ix. Micro nutrient

j. Carbohydrates         x. Macro nutrient

5. Fill in the blanks

a. Each gram of fat supplies __________ Kcal .

b. The three types of fat are saturated, unsaturated and __________ fat.

c. _____________ is an instrument used for measuring the energy value of food.

d. Carbohydrates contribute _________ % of energy requirements to the human body.

e. BMI stands for ______________ .

f. Glucose is also known as __________ .

g. Glycogen can be stored in the muscles and __________ .

h. On consumption proteins are broken down into __________ .

i. The BMR is ______% higher in males as compared to females.

j. ____________ and ____________ nutrients perform protective function to the human body.

6. State true or false

a. Fats are classified under micronutrients.

b. Energy is defined as the capacity for doing work.

c. 1-gram of carbohydrates gives 4-Kcal when oxidised in the body.

d. The BMR gradually decline with age at the rate of 2% for each decade after the age of 21 years. 

e. The full form of SDA is Special Dynamic Action.

f. Aerated soft drinks provide hollow calories.

g. Fats are classified under macronutrients.

h. The only source of Maltose is milk.

i. Vitamins and minerals are micro nutrients.

j. Aerated soft drinks provide hollow calories.

k. Disaccharides are made of 10 sugar molecules.

l. Carbohydrates do not provide dietary fiber.

m. Vitamin A and calcium is necessary for clotting of blood.

7. Q.4. Define the following terms ( Any 3)

a. BMI b. Malnutrition c. Available carbohydrates

d. Energy         e. Glycogen             f. Modified Diet

g. Hypervitaminosis         h. Unavailable Carbohydrates 

                                              (3 X 2 = 6)

Unit 1 - Basic Concepts of Nutrition

Introduction

• Food is a basic need for all living beings.
• Food gives us energy to carry out our day-to-day activities and keeps all the system in our body functioning well. 
• Food supplies the nourishing substances needed by our body to build and repair tissues and to regulate various function.

DEFINITIONS

Food: Food can be defined as any substance which nourishes the body and is fit to eat. It may be solid or liquid. Food provides the body with materials for providing energy, growth and maintenance, and regulating various processes in the body. These materials of which food is made up of are termed as nutrients.

Nutrients: Nutrients are the chemical substances present in food, which the body needs to carry out its functions. There are six major groups of nutrients, namely, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water.

Nutrition: Nutrition is the science of nourishing the body. It includes much more than just consuming a balanced diet. Nutrition is a study of various nutrients, their characteristics, functions, requirement and sources. The effect of deficiency, excessive intake, digestion, absorption and utilization in the body as well as the interrelationships that occur among some nutrients is an important part of nutrition.

Health: Health is the ability of a biological system to acquire, convert, allocate, distribute, and utilize energy with maximum efficiency.

RELATION OF FOOD AND HEALTH

Malnutrition: Malnutrition is an impairment of health resulting from a deficiency, excess, or imbalance of nutrients in the diet. It includes both under nutrition or deficiency and over nutrition or excessive consumption.

Undernutrition: It refers to a deficiency of calories and/or one or more nutrients in the diet. An undernourished person is underweight.

Over nutrition: It refers to an excess of calories and/or one or more nutrients in the diet. An excessive intake of calories results in overweight which can lead to obesity. An excessive intake of fat soluble vitamins can cause hypervitaminosis or vitamin toxicity.

Diet: A diet means the kinds and amounts of food and beverage consumed every day. A diet may be normal diet or it may be a modified diet which is used in the treatment of specific disease or condition.

NUTRITIONAL STATUS

The nutritional status of an individual is defined as the condition of health as influenced by the utilization of nutrients in the body. The nutritional status of an individual or a community can be assessed by surveying the kind and amount of food being consumed, signs of ill health or deficiency symptoms if present, height, weight, and other measurements as well as level of nutrients in the blood and excreted in the urine.

CLASSIFICATION OF NUTRIENTS

Nutrients are the essential constituents of food that are required by the body in suitable amounts. There are approximately fifty nutrients which are placed in six categories, namely, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water.
The requirement for macronutrients is in grams, while the requirement for micronutrients is in milligrams and micrograms.

CLASSIFICATION OF NUTRIENTS

FOOD AND ITS FUNCTIONS

Physiological functions:

Each nutrient in food has specific functions to perform in the body. The physiological functions performed by food are as follows:

1. Providing energy: The body needs energy to carry out voluntary and involuntary work. Involuntary work includes all process which is not under the control of our will such as digestion, respiration, and circulation and goes on continuously irrespective of whether we are asleep or awake. Voluntary activities or activities which we wish to do such as walking, playing game and working require energy, and the amount of energy required will depend on the nature of activity. The energy needed for these activities in supplied by oxidation of the foods we eat mainly carbohydrates and fats.


2. Body building or growth: It is one of the most important functions of food. An infant grows into a healthy adult by consuming the right kinds and amount of food year after year. Our body is made up of millions of cells and when growth takes place, new cells are added to the existing cells and cells increase in size.

3.Maintenance or repair: In the adult body, worn out cells are continuously being replaced by new ones. The daily wear and tear of cells needs to be maintained. Proteins, minerals, and water are the main nutrients required for growth as well as maintenance of all cells and tissues in the body.

4. Regulation of body processes: Food also regulates numerous activities in the body such as the beating of the heart, maintenance of body temperature, clotting of blood, and excretion of wastes. Each of these processes is controlled and carried out by specific nutrients for example vitamin K and calcium is necessary for clotting of blood.


5. Protective function: Nutrients keep body cells in a healthy condition to ward off infection, they help in building up the body’s resistance to disease and help the body recover rapidly from any infection. These functions are performed by vitamins and proteins.

Psychological function

We all have emotional needs such as need for love, attention, and security. Food can play an important role in fulfilling these needs. Mother can express her love for her child by preparing the child’s favourite meal. Food can be given as a reward for good behavior or deprived as a punishment for bad behavior. People feel comfortable and secure when they are served food they have been used to consuming. Many people eat to relieve anxiety and frustration, while some may eat less or refuse food when they are depressed and lonely. Food is therefore strongly associated with one’s emotions and feelings.

Social function

Food carries a lot of social significance. Warmth and friendship are expressed through sharing one’s food or inviting people to dine. Preparing special foods or ones favourite food is a way of showing respect or affection.

Food is a significant part of celebrations for occasions such as birthdays, weddings, and other joyous occasions. Festivals such as Diwali, Dussehra, Christmas and Id have special menus prescribed for the occasions.

Food also has religious significance. Some foods can be offered to god, while other are avoided on certain days for religious reasons. The type of food prepared and served is a status symbol. Even today, in some communities, adult males are given more and better quality food than females because of their higher social status.

UNIT 9 - NEWER TRENDS IN FOOD SERVICE INDUSTRY IN RELEVANCE TO NUTRITION AND HEALTH

NEED FOR SERVING NUTRITIONAL AND HEALTH- SPECIFIC MEALS

Food provided by residential institutions, such as boarding schools, college hostels, hospitals and old- age homes, are probably the one source of nutrition for the residents and must be adequate. The list of residential institute is long, and it is the responsibility and moral obligation of the caterer to provide nutritionally adequate meal to the resident. Sample menu based on the principles of meal planning and recommend dietary allowances (RDAs) should be provided to the caterer to ensure that the meal is balanced as well as attractive, appetizing, & affordable. Correct cooking practices should be followed to prevent looses of heat – liable nutrients, oxidative losses as well as leaching losses. While selecting commodities, fruits and vegetables at proper stage of maturity, which are fresh and intact, should be purchased. If convenience foods are to be purchased, their cost should be considered. The foods standards laid down by the govt. of various commodities should be checked especially for compulsory standard. For example the fruit product order for processed fruit and vegetable products such as tomato sauce, pineapple slices in syrup etc. just planning balanced meal is not sufficient. The nutrients present in the food should be conserved while preparing food, and cooking practices which enhances nutrients should be observed.
  Eating out has become a way of life. In the past, people eat in restaurant to celebrate a special occasion or it was a weary traveler on the look out of bed and board. Today, practically everybody who steps out of the house for work, education, or business has at least one main meal away from home. Number of food joints to shoot every strata of society has mushroomed in towns and cities. Many of these places are unlicensed, with the food handler having little or no knowledge about nutrients and nutrition, health and diseases. The purpose of eating is to satisfy the hunger pangs & tickle the taste buds. What the consumer looks for today is cost and convenience, the majority paying little heed to the oil bubbling and frothing in the fry pan , or to the non-discriminated addition of ajinomoto to make vegetarian food more flavorful. To make quick money, hygienic practices are ignored or sufficient investments in proper storage and cooking equipments is not made leading to the vicious cycle of diseases and malnutrition affecting work efficiency and productivity.
Some common practices which reduce the nutritional value of food are harmful to health are:
• Buying poor quality fruits and vegetables in bulk because of lower rate.
• Improper storage leading to further loss of nutrition.
• Faulty cooking practices such as using excess water and then evaporating it to get correct constituency: cutting and then washing vegetables.
• Overcooking and discarding cooking water( for liquor)
• Soaking vegetables in water
• Cooking in an open pan
• Keeping hot food over extended service period.
• Repeated reheating of entire food of instead of reheating quantity required.
• Adding alkali to hasten softening of pulses and vegetables and to preserve green colour.
• Using Aji-no-moto(MSG) in all preparations to bring out the flavor of food aji-no-moto is used in soups in place of stock permitted level in food is 1%

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FAST FOOD AND JUNK FOOD

The fast food industry is growing rapidly all over the world to provide a quick meal to the customer at an unaffordable cost and in very little time. in India the fast food industry comprises mainly of south Indian, Punjabi snacks and popular MNCs like KFC, MC’D, pizza hut etc. many product have been modified to suit the Indian palate and respect religious sentiments. Many of these provide take away or drive-thru services as well as sitting area to eat food on the premises. Modern commercial fast food is often highly processed & prepared & industrial fashion. Most items on the menu are prepared at central supply facility & then shipped to individual outlets where they are reheated / cooked or assembled in a short time. The central kitchen ensures consistency in product quality & ability to deliver the order quickly to the customer eliminating labour & equipment cost in the individual restaurant.

NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF NEWLY LAUNCHED PRODUCTS

A wide variety of convenience foods are available and new products and attractive packages are being launched every day to meet growing demands of working women, single families, the elderly and commercial establishment who are too busy to invest valuable time and labour in pre-preparation. The newly launched products in the market can be categorized under 5 heads namely:
• Basic product – needs some preparation before cooking e.g. shelled green peas
• Ready to cook products – needs no further preparation before cooking e.g. frozen green peas
• Ready to use products – must be prepared and heated e.g. instant tomato soup powder
• Pre cooked products – prepared dish which needs heating before consumption e.g. paneer makhanvala
• Table ready products – packet can be opened and eaten e.g. potato chips
Many products launched in the market make health claims which at times could be misleading. Convenience is not the main criteria, but meeting the days nutritional needs should be checked. Some newly launched products based on soya proteins Are industrial prepare often under strict regulation and control and sometimes bacteriology safer than fresh goods, if they are not stored under temperature controlled storage during retailing, their nutritive value and overall quality can be grossly affected.
Many products launched in the market make health claims which at times could be misleading. Convenience is not the main criteria, but meting the days’ nutritional needs should be checked. Some newly launched products based on soy proteins, flax seeds, carotene and vitamin E rich oils have distinct benefits while other foods such as non-diary creams have both advantages because of no cholesterol and disadvantages
Because of fatty acids composition of vegetables, oils seeds. Bakeries shortenings in the market are especially designed for a particular product and the ready product are of superior quality but the Trans fatty acid present in these fats are harmful to health.

ANTIOXIDANTS

They are compounds that prevent oxidation. Oxidation is the process that turns newspaper yellow and cut apples brown. Oxidation leads to degenerative changes in our body. Antioxidants such as vitamin C, Vitamin E, beta-carotene and selenium help protect against free radical damage. They scavenge free radicals and protect body cells against cancer. They prevent atherosclerosis and coronary artery diseases (CAD). The sources of antioxidants are listed below:
• Vitamin E soya oil, sunflower oil., almond, spinach, and mint
• Vitamin C amla, guava, green leafy vegetables and all citrus fruit
• Beta-carotene all green leafy vegetables, and all yellow orange and read fruits and vegetables.
• Selenium whole grain, pulses, green leafy vegetables and cauliflower
• Non- nutrient antioxidant phenolic compounds, favonoids and isoflavones present in beans, cloves oats, tea, coffee etc.
We need to consume much more than the RDA for antioxidant effect.

SIGNIFICANCE OF NUTRITIONAL LABELING

Nutrition facts labels tell you about the nutrition of a particular product. This information includes serving size, number of servings in the package, calories per serving and the amount of various nutrients contained in the product. Once you understand the labels, they can help you follow a healthy diet and make it easier to choose the most nutritious foods.

Making Healthy Food Decisions -Nutrition labels do affect people's food choices. When you are deciding between two different foods, you can look at the nutrition labels to determine which food is more nutritious. You can compare the labels to determine which foods are lowest in calories, fat, saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, sodium and sugar. These are the ingredients you should limit for good health. Checking the ingredients list will help you avoid foods that contain additives or other ingredients that you want to avoid. The foods with the fewest ingredients and those that only contain ingredients that you would have in your own kitchen are healthier than those with lots of ingredients you don't recognize.

Maintaining a Healthy Weight - Reading nutrition labels can help you make the right food choices when you are trying to lose weight or prevent weight gain. In a study published in the "Journal of the American Dietetic Association" in April 2000, people told by their doctors to lose weight for health reasons who used nutrition labels consumed fewer calories, more fiber and less saturated fat, sugar and carbohydrates than the people who didn't use nutrition labels.

Nutrient Consumption - Many Americans don't consume enough fiber, iron, calcium, and vitamins A and C, so these are always included on nutrition labels. You can use the percent daily values listed on the label to give you a good idea which foods are high or low in these essential nutrients. Foods that contain at least 10 percent of the daily value for a nutrient are good sources of that nutrient, and foods that contain 20 percent of the daily value for a nutrient are considered high in that nutrient.

Considerations - While nutrition facts labels can be helpful, not everyone understands the information included or the importance of it. A study published in the "American Journal of Preventive Medicine" in November 2006 found that people who had low levels of literacy and numeracy often didn't understand these labels and that even some people who were more literate sometimes had trouble interpreting nutrition facts labels. Doctors and other health providers need to provide education to their patients on how to use these labels when making dietary recommendations.

PREBIOTIC AND PROBIOTIC FOOD

Probiotics – These are “good” bacteria that help keep your digestive system healthy by controlling growth of harmful bacteria.

 Prebiotics - These are carbohydrates that cannot be digested by the human body. They are food for probiotics.
The primary benefit of probiotics and prebiotics appears to be helping you maintain a healthy digestive system.

Good Sources Of Probiotics - One of the best sources of probiotics is yogurt. It has good bacteria like lactobacillus or bifidobacteria. Look for “live or active cultures” on the label to be sure your favorite brand of yogurt is a rich source of probiotics. Other good food sources are sauerkraut, miso soup, fermented, soft cheeses (like Gouda), and even sourdough bread. The common feature of all these foods is fermentation, a process that produces probiotics.

Good Sources Of Prebiotics - To help maintain healthy level of prebiotics, you can feed them with the foods you eat. Foods rich in prebiotics include asparagus, Jerusalem artichokes, bananas, oatmeal, and legumes.

NUTRACEUTICALS

Nutraceutical, the words “nutrition” and “pharmaceutical”, is a food or food product that provides health and medical benefits, including the prevention and treatment of disease.
"A nutraceutical is a product isolated or purified from foods that is generally sold in medicinal forms not usually associated with food. A nutraceutical is demonstrated to have a physiological benefit or provide protection against chronic disease."
Such products may range from isolated nutrients, dietary supplements and specific diets to genetically engineered foods, herbal products, and processed foods such as cereals, soups, and beverages.

CRITICAL EVALUATION OF FAST FOODS

• Fast food is refers to those kinds of food that are prepared and ready to be eaten within the shortest time possible.
•  Additionally, fast food constitute foodstuffs that are available for sale in restaurants and stores made up of ingredients that that can be preheated or precooked without any problem and served in a take away form . 
• Fast foods are characterized by high fat content, high calories, high cholesterol, and quick, convenient and high sodium concentration. 
• Similarly, it is inexpensive made from ingredients that are cheap such as fat meat and refined grains. These kinds of foods are not only available in restaurants but also in vending equipment as well as 24-hour expediency stores.
• Examples of fast food include the following, sandwiches, hot dogs, pitas, fried chicken, French fries, chicken nuggets, tacos, pizza, hamburgers, fish and chips and ice cream to mention but a few.

MERITS OF FAST FOOD

Saves time

The most notable argument brought forth in support of fast food is that it saves time as well as convenience. On the same note fast food save time in the context that one will not engage in all those activities of buying, cleaning such food stuffs, cooking as well as washing dishes. It is also true that when one gets home after a tiresome day thus very tired and bored, the efforts needed to cook can be substituted with having fast food.

Saves money

Similarly, fast foods are cheaper. This is because they are made from cheaper ingredients such as refined grains, meat with a lot of fat among others instead of ingredients that are expensive and nutritious such as vegetables, lean meat and fresh fruits. On the same note considering people who live alone, the expenses of cooking are much higher compared to when buying fast food.

Health advantage

Despite the fact that those opposing fast food claim that it results to various problems in human health, it is worth noting that fast foods have contributed to taller and individuals with higher life expectancy.

Sharing and convenience

It is evident that fast food are usually packed in away that it can be taken out of the restaurant and eaten from anywhere, be it in the car, office, at the bus station. Additionally, unlike other kinds of food, fast food comes with the absolute advantage of splitting and sharing between or even amongst individuals.

Reliability

A study carried out asking why individuals bought fast food established that reliability of such kind of food is what propels them to buying them. Fast foods are easy to obtain, are in plenty, varied in nature and readily available.

Nutritional information

Most of the fast food joints have adopted a culture of making available the information concerning nutrients of their food. It is worth mentioning that with such kind of information as well as a number food stuff variety, one has a chance to choose the best kind of food that suits him or her.

DEMERITS OF FAST FOOD

Health issues

It has been brought forth that fast foods are characterized by high fat content, high calories, high cholesterol, and quick, high sodium concentration and made from ingredients that are cheap such as fat meat and refined grains. All these pose a greater risk to human health.  Too much eating of fast food with such health problems as obesity, high blood pressure, cardiovascular disorders, and liver problems.

Heart attack

Fast foods are prepared using Trans fat which is an artery-clogging fat. Food prepared using this fat includes French fries as well as chicken nuggets to mention but a few.

Increased high blood pressure

Fast food contains a good deal of sodium concentration, this aggravates the risk of high blood pressure.

Obesity

 Continual eating of such kind of food means that we accumulate a lot of calories in our body that are not useful leading to individuals being obese.

Liver problem

Since the liver is responsible for purification/filtering of harmful substances as well as producing substances that help breakdown fats, when fast foods are consumed every now and then, the liver will be overloaded and damaged. This in turn leads to very serious health problems that can be fatal.

Addiction

It has been documented that fast food is addictive. What this means is that individuals who are used to eating such foods cannot go for long without having a bit of such food.

Family bond

The issue of fast food has been brought forth as another factor that jeopardizes family bond. This is because no or very minimal time is used in preparing food together, leave alone eating together. Young people are spending more of their time in having a meal with their fellow friends other than their family members.
Psychologist hold that meal time is a family meeting where each and every member is in a position to share their thought, ideas, problems as well as feelings. This usually helps in strengthening the bond between and among family members. This is in jeopardy during this era of growth in fast food industries.

Lower nutritional content

Fast food has been linked and it is a fact that most of them apart from pizza lack dietary fiber as well as essential micro-nutrients such as vitamin and minerals. It is worth mentioning that food that lack fiber brings with it a number of stomach complication such as constipation.

Expensive

Although previously it was stated that fast food is inexpensive, that was only true when considering an individual buying such kind of food cooking at home. It is important to not that a family visiting or buying fast food once in a while is not that expensive, but when this is done more often, then the amount of money spent can be quite much more as compared to if the family could just buy the food in super market, take the time to prepared it and enjoy a dinner or lunch together as a family

CONCLUSION

We should not advocate for doing away with fast food due to its various disadvantages,but that we should not fight the industry and bring it down to its knees but rather champion for further improvement of fast food that will bring out high quality and healthy food. This will indeed ensure that people consume healthy foods and at the same time cushioning those that depend on the industry for their daily bread from economic uncertainty of doing way with the sector.

UNIT 8 - MASS FOOD PRODUCTION

Definition

• Mass production is the manufacture of large quantities of standardized products, frequently using assembly line or automation technology. 
• Mass production refers to the production of a large number of similar products efficiently.

Various methods of cooking

BOILING

This is done by immersing food in boiling water maintain the temperature at 100-degree Celsius till food is cooked in the water. Water is boiled due to conduction and convection of heat. Foods that are usually cooked by boiling are rice, potato, pasta, sage, etc. Boiling is one of the simplest methods of cooking and widely used all over the world.

POINTS TO TAKE INTO CONSIDERATION WHILE BOILING FOOD

• Water which has to be used for boiling should be just sufficient since a large quantity would leach all the nutrients
• Boil the vegetables with their skin, or cut them into big pieces which prevent them from nutrient loss.
• Use the boiled water as stock in soups and making curries so that the nutrient lost in the water can be conserved
• Boiling food vigorously consumes a lot of fuel and makes the food mushy, soft and spoils its texture.
• EXAMPLES
• Carotene present in carrot is lost when boiled in an open vessel.

SIMMERING

Food is immersed in water and cooked in a covered pan at 98-degree Celsius. This method is used for the food that takes long to cook like meat, fish. Especially used for fishes as they don’t disintegrate easily while cooking.

POINTS TO CONSIDER WHILE SIMMERING FOOD

• Should not rush otherwise the food may break down and may turn mushy.
• It is a time and fuel consuming method.
• While simmering, heat sensitive nutrients are lost.

POACHING

Poaching is done by cooking the food item with a small amount of water at 80-85 degree Celsius. Foods which are generally poached are eggs, fruits and sometimes, even certain types of fishes.

POINTS TO CONSIDER WHILE POACHING

Water-soluble nutrients are lost, so one should try and use that water in making gravies or soups.

STEWING

Stewing is done in a covered pan with a small quantity of liquid and once the liquid reaches the boiling point the flame is set to sim mode which makes it a slow and long process. Fruits and vegetables can be cooked by this method and no nutrient loss is observed as 1-2 tablespoon liquid is left which is served along the food but this process is highly time and fuel consuming.

BLANCHING

Food is blanched by immersing the food items in hot water and then cooling them under cold water. Usually, food items that need to be frozen, for example, peas are blanched.
This process helps in preserving the natural colour of the vegetables and fruits and to reduce the microbial load on the food.

STEAMING

Steam generates heat, this heat is used as a medium to cook and so it takes a longer time as compared to boiling. It’s of 2 types:

• Wet-steaming: Food is cooked by being in direct contact with the steam. For example, while cooking idlis, dhokla, dumplings this method is used.
• Dry-steaming: Food is cooked by using steam to provide heat to a utensil in which food is being cooked, without any direct contact of food with the steam. For example, double boiling in the case of chocolate.

Steaming is better than boiling as it cooks food faster and steaming helps in preserving the nutrients, colour and flavour in food as there is no nutrient loss due to contact with water.

PRESSURE COOKING

• Food is cooked under pressure. With an increase in pressure, the temperature, also increases. Thus, the food is cooked very fast. Actually, it is a type of steaming in which water is boiled under high pressure, thus raising the temperature and reducing the cooking time. The equipment used for this purpose is a pressure cooker.Foods which can be cooked in a pressure cooker easily are pulses, rice, vegetables and meat.
• Water soluble nutrients are lost in pressure cooking the food so one should use the water in making gravies.

FATS AS MEDIUM OF COOKING

In this method of cooking, fats are used as a medium to prepare food.

FRYING

Done at 180-220 degree celsius using oil or fat as the medium to cook. Food is cooked at a fast pace. The types of frying are:

SHALLOW FRYING

In this method, the oil submerges only half of the food product and then food is browned. one has to be careful not to burn the food because the food is cooked at a fast pace. For example, Parantha (Indian bread) is made this way.

DEEP FRYING

In this, the food item is completely immersed into hot oil in a large quantity. Foods cooked using this method are pakoras, samosas, French fries, etc.

POINTS TO TAKE CARE WHILE FRYING

• Overheating and re-heating of oil for a long time can decompose it. When oil begins to smoke, chemical breakdown of oil begins and Acrolein and free fatty acids are formed from Glycerol. If this happens repeatedly, then the Acrolein formed causes irritation in eyes and nostrils. This breakdown is known as pyrolysis. So prolonged frying should be avoided. It may form aldehydes and other by-products that are harmful to the health and may cause cancer. Oil that has been used once shouldn’t be used again for the same reason mentioned above.
• Use only MUFA rich oil for cooking
• Also, never mix the used oil with fresh oil.

BRAISING

It is a combination of using moist and dry heat to cook. This method helps in retaining the moisture or JUICE WITHIN THE FOOD PRESENT. For example, while making Vermicelli Kheer, Vermicelli is first roasted and then cooked in simmering milk.

DRY HEAT AND AIR AS MEDIUM OF COOKING

GRILLING AND BROILING

Food is cooked by placing the food either above, below or in between a hot surface like burning wood, charcoal or any other heating element. Here food is cooked by radiation.

POINTS TO TAKE INTO CONSIDERATION DURING THIS PROCESS

• Charring may occur.
• Temperature used for cooking is high so negligence may result in burned food.

BAKING

The food is kept in the center of an oven and the food is cooked by radiation. It makes the food brown, crisp and soft inside. The temperature at which food is usually prepared is 120-250 degree celsius. Used to make cakes, cookies, vegetables, poached eggs, sweet dishes, etc.
This process consumes a lot of electricity. Other than electric ovens, conventional oven method or microwave ovens are also used.

MICROWAVE OVEN

It works on the principle of electromagnetic waves which are produced by power source magnetron and are absorbed by the food.
It is the best method for retaining the antioxidant activity in garlic and mushrooms
About 20-30% of vitamin c in green vegetables is lost during microwaving, which is less than most cooking methods as less water is used.
On the whole, it is the best method as nutrient retention is the most in this method.
Even enhancement of flavour and uniform cooking is seen in less time.

HOW TO REDUCE NUTRIENT LOSS WHILE COOKING

• Don’t throw the water used to soak the dal and rice as it can be used to cook food again
• Never use soda to hasten the cooking of pulses as it destroys the nutrients present in them especially vitamin B.
• Boil the vegetables with peel so that nutrients are not lost.
• One can also use the vegetables and fruits with peel to cook as they have the most of the nutrients present in them.
• Always cook the green leafy vegetables in an open lid for initial five minutes as it helps to retain colour
• Always cut the vegetables and fruits in bigger pieces as in smaller pieces, greater the total surface area of the food exposed therefore is greater and so is the loss of nutrients due to leaching and oxidation.
• Do not fry and overheat the oil as Acrolein would be formed and can cause harmful diseases like cancer.
• When peeling the skin of vegetables do peel as thinly as possible.
• The nutrients in vegetables and fruits are concentrated just below the skin, so peeling before boiling increases the loss of Vitamin C, Folic Acid and other B vitamins. The peels of carrot, radish, gourd and ginger can be scraped instead of peeling. Peel only when absolutely necessary.
• Do not cut vegetables into very small cubes as each small part comes in contact with oxygen, destroying vitamins.
• Do not soak vegetables in water to prevent discoloration. Almost 40 %  of the water soluble vitamins and minerals are lost in the soaking water. If you must soak, use up the soaking water to knead dough, prepare soups and gravies.                                                  
• Root vegetables should be boiled with skins on and then peeled after boiling. This helps the nutrients to migrate to the center of the vegetables, helping better retention of its nutrients. Do eat with skin on whenever possible.
• Certain amount of minerals and vitamins are lost even during preliminary washing before cooking. Washing may remove as much as 40% of the thiamine. That’s why it is preferable to wash rice with minimum amount of water.
• Salads should be prepared just before serving and should be served in closed dishes to avoid excessive exposure to air.
• Do not throw away the excess water drained after boiling rice or vegetables. When preparing cottage cheese, the water left over after curdling is called whey. It is extremely rich in good quality proteins and vitamins and should be used up in preparing gravies, kneading dough or simply had as a refreshing drink after flavoring with lemon juice and salt and pepper.                 
• Do not keep milk open or exposed to light, as considerable destruction of riboflavin can occur.
• Baking soda makes cooking water alkaline and thus helps retain the color of vegetables as well as speed up the cooking process, BUT  it destroys thiamin and vitamin C.
• Cooked vegetables when exposed to the atmosphere before serving may also result in loss of vitamin C. It is preferable to cook vegetables in minimum amount of water keeping the vessel covered and to consume it as soon as possible. Reheating cooked vegetables further destroys vitamins.
• Such extra care can save precious nutrients. Instead of cooking only for taste and relish, we should try to get the most from our food.                                              

UNIT 7 - MENU PLANNING

Introduction

MEAL PLANNING involves planning a balanced meal which is colorful, attractive, appetizing, and palatable and within the economic means of the individuals concerned. A balanced diet is one which provides all the nutrients in the amount and proportion required according to one’s age, gender and activity.
Meal planning involves decision making regarding what to eat and how much to eat each day at each meal.
The meals planned should not only ensure that nutrients are adequately met but also be flexible enough to take advantage of easy availability and lower prices if seasonal foods and meet the needs and choices of family members.
As the health of an individual or a family depends on how well they are fed within the given resources, effective meal planning is a great challenge to every meal manager.

AIMS

• To meet the nutritional needs of an individual who will be consuming the food.
• Plan meals within the food cost.
• Simplify purchase, preparation and storage of meals.
• Provide attractive, appetizing meals.
• Save time and money.

Importance of meal planning

• Customer satisfaction
• Facilitating costing
• Facilitating pricing
• Reference by customer and management
• Guide production
• Facilitate evaluation and improvements
• Facilitate ordering
• Plan storage
• Guides the catering staff on how to  prepare dishes
• Help the catering staff to prepare in terms  of attitudes, skills ordering etc.
• Some menu requires special preparation  like decorations and equipment therefore  menu will help in availing the necessary.

Principles:

1. Budget
2. Nutrition
3. Time
4. Meal Appeal

BUDGET

It is necessary that one must plan meals and buy food wisely so as to achieve maximum nutrition from the money spent. For eg. As a source of protein pulses as compared to animal foods are relatively cheaper.

NUTRITION

Your health and well being is dependent on eating nutritious food.
TRY TO INCORPORATE EACH PART OF MYPLATE INTO ALL YOUR MEALS!
Focus on fresh fruits and vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins.

TIME

HAVING LITTLE TIME DOES NOT MEAN YOUR MEALS NEED TO BE “FAST FOOD”.
PLAN AHEAD OR USE CONVENIENCE FOODS.
PRECUT FRUIT/VEGETABLES
SALAD MIXES
MICROWAVES, CROCKPOTS, DISHWASHERS AND FOOD PROCESSORS CAN BE TIME SAVING TOOLS!
MAKE MEALS AHEAD OF TIME
CROCKPOT
FREEZER
FAST COOKING METHODS
MICROWAVE
BROILING
ONE DISH MEALS
CASSEROLES

MEAL APPEAL CHARACTERISTICS

• COLOR
• SHAPE
• FLAVOR
• TEXTURE
• TEMPERATURE

Meal Appeal Characteristics
Color- Combine different colors to make a meal interesting and vary the nutrients within the meal!
Shape- Contrasting shapes within a meal make it fun and appealing.
Flavor- Experiment with different flavors in a meal to stimulate the taste buds.
Texture- All meals should include a variety of textures. The texture can vary from soft, crunchy, smooth or chewy.
Temperature- Serving food at various temperatures is another way to add appeal to a meal. A cool side salad with a warm meal is one way to vary the temperature.

Meal Planning based on Food Group System

The first prerequisite of a good meal plan is to meet the nutritional needs of the individual and the family as a whole. No single food can meet all the nutrient requirements. A combination of different foods needs to be included in the diet.
For convenience in meal planning, different foods have been grouped under three food groups based on their function and major nutrient contributions.

1. BODY BUILDING FOODS
2. ENERGY GIVING              
3. PROTECTIVE FOODS

ENERGY GIVING FOODS

This group includes foods rich in carbohydrate like cereals and their products, starchy roots and tubers and sugar and those rich in fat like nuts, fats and oils. Therefore the energy in our diet is mainly contributed by this group.
Cereals and nuts in addition to energy, contribute significant amount of proteins, minerals and B group vitamins.
Fats sugars besides being energy dense add palatability to the diet.

BODY BUILDING FOODS

This group includes food which provides proteins that are important for tissue building and maintenance.
Foods of animal origin like milk and its product, eggs, meat, fish, provide proteins of good quality.
Plant protein foods like pulses, legumes nuts and oilseeds have a relatively inferior quality of protein.
The foods of this group in addition to protein also contributes energy, vitamin A, vitamins of B groups and minerals.

PROTECTIVE FOODS

This group includes foods that provide ample amount of vitamins and minerals for protective regulatory function of the body.
All vegetables and fruits (except starchy roots and tubers) and fruits comprise this group.
Amongst vegetables most of the GLV’S are good source of iron, calcium, beta carotene, vitamin C and dietary fibre.
Deep yellow and orange colored fruits and vegetable are particularly rich in beta carotene and citrus fruits in vitamin C.
Hence, selection and inclusion of some foods from each of these food groups in every meal is important to provide all the essential nutrients for various body functions and to make the diet well balanced.

FOOD COST AND ECONOMY

• It is necessary that one must plan meals and buy food wisely so as to achieve maximum nutrition from the money spent. For eg. As a source of protein pulses as compared to animal foods are relatively cheaper.
• For economizing in meal planning, the following characteristics are important:
• Compare the prices of food items to make best buy of money spent.
• As far as possible buy food from fair price shops etc.
• Buy only non-perishable foods in bulk.
• Use seasonal foods as they are not only economical but nutritious also.
• Cook the right amount to minimize wastage.
• Go for economic substitutes within the same food groups. Eg. Choosing cereals and millets instead of bread and pasta.
• Make proper use of leftover. 

ACCEPTABILITY OF MEALS

Acceptability of meals is as important as meeting nutritional needs and keeping the food cost within the budget. To make meals acceptable, following considerations are important during planning,
LIKES AND DISLIKES: while planning meals it is very important to keep in mind likes and dislikes of family /people.
VARIETY: the meals should have variety in color, texture, and flavour for better acceptability. Variety can be achieved by:
Selecting different foods from each food group.
Avoiding repetition of same food from particular food group.
Including a variety of vegetables in meals so as to incorporate colour.
Using different methods of cooking such as baking, boiling, frying etc. to bring about variety in texture.
Using attractive garnishes, toppings and accompaniments such as papad, pickles and relishes.
SATIETY VALUE: the meals planned should provide adequate satiety so as to prevent hunger till it is time to next meal. Sufficient amount of proteins, dietary fibre and fat helps to provide satiety in the meals.
TIME AND CONVINIENCE: selection of dishes should be done according to the availability of time.
FOOD HABITS AND RELIGIOUS BELIEFS
FOOD AVAILABILITY AND SEASONAL VARIATION: as far as possible seasonal and locally available food should be made use of. Vegetables and fruits in season are not only cheaper but have the highest content and best flavour.

FACTORS AFFECTING MEAL PLANNING

Several factors direct what kind of menu to  make

Nutrition requirements

• Proteins
• Starches
• Vitamins
• Fats
• Mineral salts

Health consideration

• Sickness
• Availability of foodstuffs
• Seasonal foods like Fruits Vegetables

Number of courses

• Appetizer
• Main dish
• Dessert

Sequence of courses

Occasions

• Funerals
• Wedding
• Birthday
• Graduation Ceremony
• National holiday celebration
• Festivals

UNIT 6 - BALANCED DIET

BALANCED DIET

When the diet is able to meet all the needs of an individual and also it provides an extra allowance for minor stresses and strains, the individual is said to be in a state of optimum nutrition.

OPTIMUM NUTRITION is also known as adequate nutrition or good nutrition.

GOOD NUTRITION thus provides all essential nutrients in correct balance which are further utilized to promote the highest level of physical and mental health. Such a state of nutrition can be attained through balanced diets.

BALANCED DIET can be defined as one which contains different types of foods (from all food group) in such quantities and proportions that needs for all the nutrients are adequately met and a small extra allowance is made as a margin of safety.

SAFETY MARGIN is taken into account due to individual variations, losses during cooking and processing and also minor illnesses.
Thus a balanced diet along with inclusion of various food groups focuses on the RDA for various nutrients.

RDA is defined as the estimates of intakes nutrients which individuals in a population group need to consume to ensure that the physiological needs of all subjects in that population are met.
RDA varies with age, sex, physiological state etc.

Factors affecting RDA

This nutritional requirement is influenced by –

1. age
2. growth 
3. gender
4. pregnancy
5. breastfeeding
6. illness
7. psychological and emotional stress
8. activity level
9. smoking
10. drinking.

IMPORTANCE OF BALANCED DIET

1. It includes variety of food items from all the food groups.
2. It meets the RDA for all nutrients
3. it provide safety allowances so as to withstand short duration of illness.
4. To maintain a state of positive health and optimal performance.
5. Prevents deficiency diseases.
6. Promotes and preserves health.
7. Promotes optimum nutrition thus maintains acceptable body dimensions.


DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, AND METABOLISM

• DIGESTION:
– Mechanical and chemical process in which food is broken down in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, releasing nutrients in forms the body can use

• ABSORPTION:
– Process in which released nutrients are taken into the cells lining the GI tract

• METABOLISM:
– The sum of the body processes involved in converting food necessary for energy, tissue building, and metabolic controls

DIGESTION: BASIC PRINCIPLES

• Principle of Change
– The body cannot use food as it is eaten
– Food must be changed into simpler substances to be absorbed and then used by cells to sustain life

• Principle of Wholeness
– The parts of the digestive process comprise a continuous whole.
– Food components travel through the gastrointestinal (GI) system until they are delivered to cells or excreted

THE GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM
• A long muscular tube that begins with the mouth and ends with the anus (also called the alimentary canal or digestive tract)

UNIT 5 - WATER

What is water?

Water is a transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance.
It is vital for all known forms of life, even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients.
Water is the most essential constituent of our body. It has fundamental importance in both structure and functioning of all tissues. It accounts for 55-75% of our total body weight.
Lean individuals have more water than the obese, and infants and children have a greater proportion of water than adults.

DIETARY SOURCES OF WATER

1. VISIBLE SOURCES   - The water taken through drinks, plain water, fruit 
                                           juices, hot and cold beverages.

2 .INVISIBLE SOURCES- Water present in food stuffs like vegetables,
                                            whole   fruits, solid food contain varying
                                            percentage of water. 
 3. Apart from this body also contains metabolic water.  It is synthesized in the 
   body as a result of oxidation of macronutrients
The intake of fluid varies among people on the basis of age, gender, climate, physical activity etc.
Adequate amount of water need to be consumed to allow body to perform its daily functions.
8-10 glasses of water should be consumed daily i.e. 2-2.5 litres.

Daily losses of water from body

1. Insensible water loss- water loss which we are not consciously aware of, which occurs continuously in living beings.
loss by evaporation from skin
loss through respiratory tract
2. Through sweat- it depends on physical activity and temperature.

 3. Through urine- it is the most important mechanism by which the body maintains a balance between fluid intake and output.

       4. Loss in faeces- only small amounts of water is normally lost in  faeces, as re-absorption takes place.

FUNCTIONS OF WATER

• The most important function is of quenching thirst.
• It is a structural component of all cells. Water is present in bound form in bones and unbound form in most tissues, thus there is a constant interchange taking place between the body compartments of water.
• It acts as a medium for all chemical reactions to take place.
• It is an essential component of all body fluids such as blood, lymph, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), bile, digestive juices and urine.
• It acts as a lubricant and helps food to be swallowed and digested food to pass through the GIT (gastro intestinal tract).
• Water regulates body temperature by taking up and distributing heat being produced in cells when metabolic reactions take place.
• It helps in excreting waste products of the metabolic reactions.
• It is important to maintain turgidity of cells.

WATER BALANCE

Water intake/ input  =  Water output
Water available through dietary sources and from food metabolism and the loss of water through bodily processes maintains water balance.

When water balance is disturbed then following conditions arises
Dehydration
In situation where water output increases than water input i.e. there is excessive loss of water from body due to conditions like diarrhea, vomit, fever, diabetes, it can lead to dehydration.
A dehydrated person feels thirsty, has dry mouth, sunken and dry eyes, restless, irritable and can also lead to unconsciousness.
The condition is managed by giving ORT(oral rehydration therapy).
In ORT  oral rehydration solution (ORS) is dissolved in 1 liter of water. It is given till the person body gets normally dehydrated.
Odema
When water input increases than output in such a condition retention of water in body takes place and thus salts are also retained in the interstitial fluid giving rise to swelling of the skin.
This condition of retention of water and salt in interstitial fluids is ODEMA
Its characteristic feature is, when pressure is applied to swollen skin a depression is formed.

MAINTAINING WATER BALANCE

In the body, several mechanisms work together to maintain water balance. These include

Thirst

Thirst is one of the most important mechanisms to maintain water balance. When the body needs water, nerve centers deep within the brain are stimulated, resulting in the sensation of thirst. The sensation becomes stronger as the body’s need for water increases, motivating a person to drink the needed fluids. When the body has excess water, thirst is suppressed.

Interaction of the pituitary gland and kidneys

An interaction between the pituitary gland and the kidneys provides another mechanism. When the body is low in water, the pituitary gland (located at the base of the brain) secretes vasopressin  into the bloodstream. Vasopressin stimulates the kidneys to conserve water and excrete less urine. When the body has excess water, the pituitary gland secretes little vasopressin, enabling the kidneys to excrete excess water in the urine.

Osmosis

In osmosis, water flows passively from one area or compartment of the body to another. This passive flow allows the larger volumes of fluid in the cells and the area around the cells to act as reservoirs to protect the more critical but smaller volume of fluid in the blood vessels from dehydration.